Models of Teaching Observation

Teaching observation is not a single, uniform practice. It takes different forms depending on who is involved, the relationships between participants, and the purpose of the observation. Understanding these variations helps clarify how observation is experienced and how it can best support teaching and learning.

This guide approaches teaching observation as a formative, reflective, and context-sensitive practice focused on learning and dialogue, rather than evaluation. While multiple models and purposes are described below, the emphasis throughout is on approaches that support inquiry, collaboration, and professional growth.

Gosling (2002) identifies three commonly cited models in higher education:

Evaluation Model

Observation is conducted to assess teaching effectiveness, often by a senior colleague or administrator. Criteria are usually predetermined, and outcomes may contribute to formal decisions. Power differentials are explicit.

Developmental Model

Observation is facilitated by an educational developer or teaching specialist. Feedback draws on pedagogical expertise and research-informed practices, with a focus on growth rather than assessment.

Peer-Supported Model

Colleagues observe one another in a reciprocal, non-evaluative process. The emphasis is on dialogue, trust, and mutual learning, with feedback grounded in agreed-upon goals rather than external criteria.

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Purpose and Conditions in Observation

Teaching observations are shaped by their purpose—whether they are summative or formative—and by the expectations and relationships that surround the process.

Summative Observation

Summative observation is used for evaluation, such as personnel decisions, quality assurance, or formal assessment of teaching effectiveness. These observations are typically guided by established criteria and may contribute to institutional processes.

Formative Observation

Formative observation is designed to support reflection and professional learning. It emphasizes descriptive feedback, inquiry into teaching practice, and the instructor's development over time.

These purposes create different conditions for participation. Summative observation is often more structured and may feel higher-stakes, while formative observation relies on trust, openness, and dialogue. When the purpose of an observation is unclear—or when expectations are not aligned—it can be more difficult to create the conditions needed for reflective, learning-oriented conversations (Blackmore, 2005; Hammersley-Fletcher & Orsmond, 2005).

In practice, the evaluation model is most often associated with summative purposes, while developmental and peer-supported models are typically formative. However, any model can be experienced differently depending on how the process is framed and how observation documentation is used. Being explicit about purpose—and about who will have access to any resulting documentation—is essential for establishing trust and shared expectations.

Formative, learning-oriented approaches to teaching observation are more likely to support reflective practice and sustained pedagogical development, particularly when participation is voluntary and expectations are clearly communicated (Bell, 2001; Pattison et al., 2012; Yiend, Weller, & Kinchin, 2014). Observations conducted in evaluative contexts may encourage more cautious or performative teaching, which can limit opportunities for experimentation and inquiry (Blackmore, 2005; Hammersley-Fletcher & Orsmond, 2005).

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Why Instructors Engage in Teaching Observation

Teaching observations offer valuable opportunities for inquiry and professional growth. They can help instructors identify what is working well in their teaching, better understand how students experience learning activities, and make intentional, evidence-informed changes over time.

Through teaching observation, instructors may:

Reflect on their teaching practices with structured support
Receive targeted, actionable feedback
Experiment with new teaching methods or technologies
Deepen insights into student learning and engagement
Document growth and development over time

Documentation generated through teaching observation—such as observer notes, reflective narratives, or feedback summaries—may also inform professional materials, including:

Teaching dossiers
Award applications
Job applications
Promotion and tenure documents

Later in this guide, we return to how feedback from teaching observation can be translated thoughtfully and ethically into professional documentation. Used in this way, teaching observation can help instructors articulate their teaching values, demonstrate responsiveness to feedback, and show an ongoing commitment to professional learning.

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University of Toronto, Centre for Teaching Support & Innovation